Last time I discussed Zhuge Liang's four “big daddies.” Today I will continue exploring his early social connections and draw some conclusions from them.

5 Pang Degong

Pang Degong was a native of Xiangyang, Jingzhou, a celebrated scholar and recluse of the late Han. He later died while gathering medicinal herbs.

The main accounts of Pang Degong come from the Records of Xiangyang and the “Mian River” section of the Commentary on the Water Classic. The latter contains only one passage, describing how Pang Degong, Pang Tong, and Sima Hui lived near one another and often talked together. I reproduce it below:

East of the city of Xiangyang lies East Baisha. North of Baisha are three islets, and to the northeast is Wankou, where the Qing River flows in. In the Mian River lies Yuliang Islet, where Pang Degong lived. Shiyuan lived on the south side of the Han River, at South Baisha, so people called the place Baisha Bend. Sima Decao's home stood on the southern side of the islet. Their doorways faced one another, their friendship brought them together, and they would take a boat or lift their robes to cross the water, enjoying easy and spontaneous visits.

From the Records of Xiangyang, we can learn the following.

First, Liu Biao, governor of Jingzhou, repeatedly invited Pang Degong to enter public service, but Pang refused every time. Liu Biao later visited Pang's home himself: he was evidently eager to recruit talent. Liu Biao hoped Pang would come forward to preserve peace in the realm. Pang declined, saying that he had no intention of taking office, and Liu Biao finally left with a sigh.

Second, Zhuge Liang, Sima Hui, and Xu Shu all frequently visited Pang Degong's home, and their behavior showed how close they were.

Third, Pang Degong's son was named Pang Juanmin, also known as Pang Shanmin. He married Zhuge Liang's second elder sister. That meant Zhuge Liang's sister had to call Pang Degong “Father”; rounding things off, Pang Degong was another father to Zhuge Liang too.

Fourth, Pang Degong had a nephew: Pang Tong. Pang Tong was not famous at first, but Pang Degong and Sima Hui both thought highly of him.

Fifth, Pang Degong was a master of marketing. The names circulating locally—Zhuge Liang as the “Sleeping Dragon,” Pang Tong as the “Fledgling Phoenix,” and Sima Hui as “Master Water Mirror”—were all coined by Pang Degong.

Sixth, Pang Degong's son later became a Gentleman of the Yellow Gate and Ministry of Personnel in Wei. This was not a top-ranking position, but in today's terms he would still have counted as a middle- or senior-ranking official in a central government ministry. Pang Degong's grandson became administrator of Yanmen during the Jin dynasty.

This shows that the so-called recluses of the time first had to belong to powerful scholarly clans. Pang Degong's family must have wielded considerable influence. He also had an eye for talent: several of his close associates went on to play important roles.

6 Sima Hui

Sima Hui came from Yangdi in Yingchuan. While he was still in Yingchuan, Pang Tong visited him. They had a very pleasant conversation, and Sima Hui praised Pang Tong as “the foremost celebrated scholar of the southern region.”

In the third year of Jian'an (198, when Zhuge Liang was 17), Sima Hui came to Xiangyang in Jingzhou. He was well versed in esoteric arts and classical learning. Many people came to study under him because of his reputation. One of his students was Xiang Lang, who later followed Liu Bei into Shu and Zhuge Liang on his northern campaigns, becoming an important Shu Han official.

Sima Hui considered Liu Biao narrow-minded, so he avoided discussing politics. Attracted by his reputation, Liu Biao once came to visit, but after their conversation concluded that Sima Hui was overrated and had little insight.

Liu Biao's son Liu Cong also visited Sima Hui. Sima Hui was hoeing a field at the time and identified himself, but Liu Cong's attendants thought he was so ugly that they began insulting him. The encounter ended awkwardly.

After Liu Bei arrived in Jingzhou, he consulted Sima Hui about the state of the realm. Sima Hui solemnly recommended Zhuge Liang and Pang Tong.

When Liu Cong surrendered to Cao Cao, Cao Cao gained access to Sima Hui and planned to give him an important position. Unfortunately, Sima Hui soon died of illness.

7 Xu Shu and Shi Tao

Xu Shu, courtesy name Yuanzhi, and Shi Tao, courtesy name Guangyuan, were both from Yingchuan. They had known one another for a long time and were close friends. Toward the end of the Zhongping era, around 189, Xu Shu changed his name after killing someone; his original name had been Xu Fu. In the second year of Chuping (191, when Zhuge Liang was 10), Xu Shu and Shi Tao moved to Jingzhou. Both later became close to Zhuge Liang.

In the sixteenth year of Jian'an (201, when Zhuge Liang was 20), Liu Bei arrived in Jingzhou. Xu Shu entered his service and was given important responsibilities. Xu Shu then recommended Zhuge Liang to Liu Bei, leading to the famous account that Liu Bei “went three times before finally meeting him.”

In fact, the account in the Records of the Three Kingdoms is rather general. Liu Bei arrived in Jingzhou in 201; Liu Biao died and Cao Cao advanced south in the eighth month of 208. There were seven years between these events, and we cannot be sure exactly when Xu Shu entered Liu Bei's service. Nor can we be sure when he recommended Zhuge Liang.

When Liu Bei fled south, Cao Cao's forces captured Xu Shu's mother, so Xu Shu took his leave of Liu Bei. This differs from the story in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, in which “Xu Shu recommends Zhuge Liang as he rides away.”

Later, Xu Shu and Shi Tao both served Wei. Xu Shu rose to General of the Household of the Right and Deputy Imperial Censor; Shi Tao became a commandery administrator and Colonel for Agricultural Colonies. Both held senior posts. Yet during his later northern campaigns, when Zhuge Liang heard that these were the offices they held, he exclaimed: “Does Wei truly have so many talented men? Why have those two not been put to greater use?” This shows how fond he was of them and how highly he rated them.

8 Cui Jun and Meng Jian

Cui Jun, courtesy name Zhouping, and Meng Jian, courtesy name Gongwei, together with Xu Yuanzhi and Shi Guangyuan mentioned above, became known to later generations as “Zhuge Liang's Four Friends.”

Cui Jun, courtesy name Zhouping, came from Anping in Boling, now Anping County, Hengshui, Hebei. He was an Eastern Han official, the son of Grand Commandant Cui Lie and the younger brother of Consultant Cui Jun. He had served as administrator of Hexi and had joined Yuan Shao in raising troops east of the mountains against Dong Zhuo. He was certainly a prominent figure of his day, and was probably much older than Zhuge Liang.

The “Biography of Zhuge Liang” records:

“He stood eight chi tall and often compared himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi, a judgment his contemporaries would not accept. Only his close friends Cui Zhouping of Boling and Xu Shu, courtesy name Yuanzhi, of Yingchuan believed it to be true.”

The “Biography of Dong He” records these words of Zhuge Liang:

“When I first befriended Zhouping, I repeatedly heard him explain my strengths and failings. Later, when I befriended Yuanzhi, I frequently received his guidance and instruction.”

For Zhuge Liang, then, Cui Zhouping and Xu Yuanzhi were both mentors and friends. They not only recognized his worth but also did much to help him develop.

Meng Jian, courtesy name Gongwei, came from Runan Commandery.

In the early Jian'an years, Zhuge Liang, Xu Shu, Shi Tao, and Meng Jian traveled and studied together. The other three all “strove for thorough mastery,” whereas Zhuge Liang alone could “grasp the broad outlines.” Zhuge Liang once told them: “The three of you could become provincial inspectors or commandery administrators.” When they asked how far he himself might rise, he smiled without answering.

Later, Meng Gongwei grew homesick and wanted to return north. Zhuge Liang said:

“The Central Plains have plenty of scholar-officials. Why must you return to your hometown to make your way in the world?”

During the northern campaigns, Zhuge Liang once asked Sima Yi, in a letter of reply, to have Du Xi convey his greetings to Meng Jian. This, too, suggests that they had been close in their youth.

To recap, I have just discussed Pang Degong, Sima Hui, Xu Shu, Shi Tao, Cui Jun, and Meng Jian. Pang Degong and Cui Jun were the most senior. Pang Degong was the father-in-law of Zhuge Liang's second elder sister. Cui Jun came from an eminent family and had already served as a commandery administrator and led troops into battle. Sima Hui was ten years younger than Pang Degong, and he too promoted Zhuge Liang and Pang Tong as younger men of promise. Xu Shu and Shi Tao came from the same place and moved to Jingzhou together. They were probably of similar ages, somewhat older than Zhuge Liang but not by very much. Meng Jian may have been about the same age as Xu Shu and Shi Tao, or the same age as Zhuge Liang. He, too, was active in official life several decades later.

These are only the relationships that were recorded; there may have been many more. Take Pang Tong: he was Pang Degong's nephew, had long known Sima Hui, and the three had once lived close together. Pang Degong and Sima Hui spoke of Zhuge Liang and Pang Tong in the same breath. After so many years in Jingzhou, those two could hardly have been strangers.

After the Battle of Red Cliffs, Liu Bei occupied half of Jingzhou. After he entered Shu, a large proportion of his important officials came from Jingzhou. Xiangyang alone supplied Yang Yi, chief clerk to the chancellor; Ma Liang, palace attendant; Ma Su, military adviser; Yang Yong, registrar to the chancellor; Xiang Lang, General of the Left; Xiang Chong, gate general; Liao Hua, General of Chariots and Cavalry; and Luo Xian, administrator of Wuling, among others. Their relationships were complicated, but they unquestionably formed an interest group. Later known as the “Jingzhou faction,” they were one of Shu Han's three principal political forces, alongside the “Yizhou faction” and the “Dongzhou faction.”

Putting this information together, I offer the following conjectures for discussion:

1 In the early Jian'an years, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao were rivals. Broadly speaking, Liu Biao belonged to Yuan Shao's camp and was at odds with Cao Cao. In the fifth year of Jian'an, 200, Cao Cao won the Battle of Guandu. In the sixth year, 201, Liu Bei placed himself under Liu Biao's protection and was stationed at Xinye. The attitudes of Jingzhou's notable scholars began to diverge. One group, led by Cai Mao, advocated persuading Liu Biao to cultivate Cao Cao and surrender to him. They later supported Liu Cong's succession and surrendered at lightning speed when Cao Cao advanced south. Another group, represented by Pang Degong, Sima Hui, Xu Shu, and others, took a disengaged attitude toward Liu Biao and felt even less enthusiasm for his successor Liu Cong. They favored Liu Bei, believing that he offered them a better chance to realize their personal ambitions.

2 Within Jingzhou's scholarly circles, Zhuge Liang was a representative of the younger generation: he came from an eminent family, cut an impressive figure, possessed outstanding abilities, and thought highly of himself. Senior figures such as Pang Degong, Sima Hui, Cui Jun, and Xu Shu saw his promise and took care to cultivate him. With the support of these influential men, his abilities and reputation grew considerably.

3 The Brief History of Wei records that Zhuge Liang took the initiative to visit Liu Bei, who did not know him. Only after a conversation did Liu Bei receive him as an honored guest. The Annals of the Nine Provinces gives the same account. Pei Songzhi doubted this passage because the Memorial on Sending Out the Troops clearly says that Liu Bei “visited me three times in my thatched cottage.” Many participants were still alive at the time; Zhuge Liang could hardly have lied. I think the author of the Brief History of Wei had sound historical integrity and would not have invented the story; Zhuge Liang's own statement was also true. Perhaps the two accounts can coexist. The story would then run as follows: Liu Bei initially did not know Zhuge Liang. Soon after Liu Bei arrived in Jingzhou, Zhuge Liang met him along with other guests and made a deep impression. Liu Bei treated him as an honored guest, but did not formally appoint him. Later, as Zhuge Liang's fame grew and Sima Hui and Xu Shu strongly recommended him, Liu Bei formally invited him to join his service.

4 Zhuge Liang was then a young representative of Jingzhou's resistance faction. They refused to surrender to Cao Cao and hoped to follow Liu Bei in a great undertaking. The “Biography of Zhuge Liang” records:

Soon afterward Liu Biao died. Hearing that Lord Cao was marching against him, Liu Cong sent envoys to offer his surrender. The Former Lord heard the news at Fan and led his followers south. Zhuge Liang and Xu Shu both accompanied him. Lord Cao pursued and defeated them, capturing Xu Shu's mother. Xu Shu took leave of the Former Lord, pointed to his heart, and said: “It was with this small space here that I originally hoped to join you, General, in achieving the work of kings and hegemons. Now I have lost my aged mother, my heart is in turmoil, and I can be of no use to the cause. Please let us part here.” He then went to Lord Cao.

This shows that Xu Shu's original reason for joining Liu Bei was to “join you, General, in achieving the work of kings and hegemons.” It also shows how strongly Zhuge Liang supported Liu Bei. Taken together with Zhuge Liang's recollections of Xu Shu in the “Biography of Dong He,” it suggests that the two worked together for a considerable time. Zhuge Liang may have joined Liu Bei's army several years earlier than we imagine.

5 The Longzhong Plan was very likely a joint program agreed upon by the notable scholars of Jingzhou's resistance faction and Liu Bei's military group. By formulating it, the two groups brought their interests together. As the representative of the Jingzhou resistance scholars and the chief proposer, Zhuge Liang received the authorship credit when the two groups presented it publicly.

The reason is simple. Liu Bei did not need Zhuge Liang to explain the political situation described in the Longzhong Plan. He had traveled far and wide and naturally understood it himself. Liu Bei also knew he needed to occupy Jingzhou. The real questions were whether Jingzhou's powerful clans would agree and cooperate, how the region would develop afterward, and whether everyone could reach a consensus. In effect, Zhuge Liang made a promise to Liu Bei on behalf of Jingzhou's resistance faction: “We people of Jingzhou will help you govern Jingzhou, attack Yizhou, and ally with Sun Quan. We have plenty of talent and resources for you to use. But you must unequivocally oppose Cao Cao and restore the Han, and do not forget to give us some benefits in the future.”

6 The wholehearted support that Zhuge Liang and the other Jingzhou resistance figures gave Liu Bei can also be corroborated by events following Cao Cao's southern campaign.

First, when Cao Cao advanced south and Liu Bei fled from Fancheng toward Dangyang, they passed the city of Xiangyang. Zhuge Liang urged Liu Bei to attack Liu Cong, but Liu Bei refused. Remember that Liu Cong was Zhuge Liang's wife's younger cousin. Zhuge Liang showed him no indulgence, which reveals a political disagreement between them.

Second, along the way, “many of Liu Cong's attendants and the people of Jingzhou went over to the Former Lord. By the time he reached Dangyang, his followers numbered more than a hundred thousand, with several thousand baggage carts, and they traveled only a little over ten li a day. He separately sent Guan Yu with several hundred boats to meet him at Jiangling.” This shows that most people in Jingzhou unwilling to submit to Cao Cao supported Liu Bei and were willing to follow him.

Third, Sun Quan commissioned Lu Su to offer condolences for Liu Biao's death and establish friendly relations with Liu Bei. Events moved so quickly that Lu Su met Liu Bei at Dangyang. Lu Su belonged to the resistance faction in Sun Quan's camp: he opposed surrendering to Cao Cao and advocated an alliance with Liu Bei. An important reason for this alliance, beyond Liu Bei's troops, was probably that Liu Bei could secure the support of Jingzhou's scholars. After reaching Xiakou, Liu Bei sent Zhuge Liang to establish good relations with Sun Quan. This was also because Zhuge Liang could represent both Jingzhou's resistance faction and Liu Bei's original group. Their interests had already converged.

Fourth, Liu Bei's so-called borrowing of Jingzhou refers only to Zhou Yu giving him a tract of land on the southern bank after capturing Nan Commandery and becoming its administrator. Liu Bei stationed his troops at Gong'an. The four commanderies in southern Jingzhou, however, were taken by Liu Bei's own forces, and all surrendered without a battle. While Liu Bei was stationed at Gong'an, many of Liu Biao's former officials and scholars entered his service. This further shows that many Jingzhou scholars supported Liu Bei, which was also a reason Sun Quan had to ally with him.

Fifth, after Zhou Yu captured Nan Commandery, Sun Quan proposed attacking Yizhou together with Liu Bei. Liu Bei adopted the advice of Yin Guan, Jingzhou's registrar, and put him off with delaying tactics. Later Zhou Yu died of illness, leaving Sun Quan with no choice but to postpone the conquest of Ba and Shu indefinitely. In the end, Liu Bei led his troops into Yizhou on the pretext of helping Liu Zhang defend against Zhang Lu. He later turned against Liu Zhang. His troops already inside Yizhou coordinated with reinforcements from Jingzhou led by Zhuge Liang, Zhang Fei, and Zhao Yun. Attacking from within and without, they ultimately captured Yizhou.

Idealism certainly had its place, but so did the naked contest over material interests. The convergence of Jingzhou's resistance faction and Liu Bei's bureaucratic group was the eventual result of years of political maneuvering in Jingzhou. Liu Bei's group offered the resistance faction a banner of opposition to Cao Cao and restoration of the Han, along with military force. The resistance faction provided Liu Bei's group with talent and the ability to govern locally. The Longzhong Plan was their common program of action and declaration of cooperation, while Zhuge Liang was a principal driving force behind their alliance.

It was that impassioned exchange between Liu Bei and Zhuge Liang in the thatched cottage that brought the two groups together, made possible the future Emperor Zhaolie of Han and Marquis Zhongwu of Han, and created the worthy dynasty of Shu Han.