A few days ago, someone used the proportion of prostitutes in Germany to estimate their number in China. Without thinking, I said, "Chinese people's moral standards are ten times those of Germans. How can you calculate it proportionally? By that same method, China ought to have millions of football stars."

Then people attacked me. Some said, "Prostitution is not a moral issue." I accepted that: what I said did indeed smack of moral grandstanding. Others said I threw around "ten times" at every turn and was completely unreliable. On that point, I kept feeling I was not wrong.

After thinking for a day and a night, I suddenly realized that I had learned this "ten times" from Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

The novel has a special kind of arithmetic called "tenfold arithmetic." When measuring someone's bravery, talent, or importance, people casually say that person is ten times better than someone else. Today, let us take stock of this "tenfold arithmetic."

I. Kong Rong: Mi Heng = 10 × Kong Rong

In Chapter 23 of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, "Mi Zhengping Strips and Denounces a Traitor; Imperial Physician Ji Is Executed for Poisoning," it is the eve of the Battle of Guandu. Yuan Shao is strong and Cao Cao weak, yet Zhang Xiu follows Jia Xu's advice and surrenders to Cao Cao. Delighted, Cao Cao has Zhang Xiu write a letter urging Liu Biao to surrender too.

Who should deliver it? Liu Biao likes famous scholars, so Xun You recommends Kong Rong. When approached, Kong Rong recommends Mi Heng instead, saying:

My friend Mi Heng, courtesy name Zhengping, has ten times my talent. He ought to be at the emperor's side, not merely serve as an envoy. I shall recommend him to the Son of Heaven.

Subsequent events leave Mi Heng's talent open to question, but his courage was certainly considerable. He mocked Cao Cao's advisers and generals to Cao Cao's face and covertly ridiculed Liu Biao when they met, before eventually being killed by Liu Biao's subordinate Huang Zu. Mi Heng really was close to Kong Rong, though. He thought little of anyone: in all of Xudu, or Xuchang, only two people were impressive: "The elder boy Kong Wenju [Kong Rong] and the younger boy Yang Dezu [Yang Xiu]. Apart from those two, there is nobody."

II. Yuan Shao: Guan Yu = 10 × Yan Liang and Wen Chou

During the Battle of Guandu, Guan Yu is in Cao Cao's army and Liu Bei in Yuan Shao's. Guan Yu kills the two great generals Yan Liang and Wen Chou in succession. Furious, Yuan Shao wants to execute the big-eared scoundrel Liu Bei. Liu Bei bamboozles him, saying this is Cao Cao's scheme to drive a wedge between them. Moreover, he can write to Guan Yu, who will surely travel day and night to come serve Yuan Shao and avenge Yan Liang and Wen Chou.

Yuan Shao is delighted and says:

Gaining Yunchang would be ten times better than having Yan Liang and Wen Chou.

Of course, Romance of the Three Kingdoms is a novel, but this scene really insults Yuan Shao's intelligence. One moment he wants revenge for Yan Liang and Wen Chou; the next he says Guan Yu is ten times better than them… Historically, Guan Yu killed only Yan Liang, while Cao Cao led the force that killed Wen Chou. Nor were Yan Liang and Wen Chou as important as the novel portrays them. Luo Guanzhong artificially inflated their status to glorify Guan Yu, then made Wen Chou another bundle of experience points for him. That still leaves unexplained why Yuan Shao did not kill Liu Bei, so the novel simply muddles through this part.

III. Sun Ce: Sun Quan = 10 × Sun Ce

Sun Ce is ambushed by Xu Gong's retainers and struck by a poisoned arrow. Later, after killing Yu Ji, he becomes haunted and is about to die. He summons Sun Quan, Zhang Zhao, and others to give his final instructions. His mother, Lady Wu, worries that Sun Quan is too young to shoulder such responsibility. Sun Ce says:

My brother's talents surpass mine tenfold; he is fully capable of this great task. If uncertain about internal affairs, ask Zhang Zhao; if uncertain about external affairs, ask Zhou Yu. I regret that Zhou Yu is absent and I cannot instruct him in person!

Historically, Sun Ce did not spout such nonsense as an offhand "ten times." His actual words were:

In leading the forces of Jiangdong, deciding the moment of battle between opposing formations, and contending with the realm, you are not my equal. In raising the worthy and appointing the able, winning everyone's wholehearted service, and preserving Jiangdong, I am not your equal.

IV. Sima Hui: Xu Shu = 10 × Sima Hui

Sima Hui is also known as Master Water Mirror. Liu Bei happens upon him outside Xiangyang. Sima Hui speaks in riddles—or, more accurately, Luo Guanzhong does. He refuses an invitation to enter public service, then says, "Sleeping Dragon and Young Phoenix: obtain either one and you can bring peace to the realm." Asked who Sleeping Dragon and Young Phoenix are, he refuses to answer.

That night, Xu Shu happens to visit Sima Hui. Xu Shu wants to join Liu Biao, but Sima Hui objects, saying, "A true hero is right before your eyes," hinting that he should join Liu Bei.

The next day, Liu Bei again asks Sima Hui to leave seclusion, and Sima Hui says:

I am an idle man of the countryside, unfit for the world's service. Someone ten times better than me will come to assist you; you should seek him out.

Although not explicitly named, this should refer to Xu Shu, who soon afterward joins Liu Bei under the name Shan Fu.

V. Cheng Yu: Xu Shu = 10 × Cheng Yu

Soon after Xu Shu joins Liu Bei, Cao Ren and Li Dian attack Xinye. Cao Ren deploys the Eight Gates Golden Lock Formation, but Xu Shu breaks it, causing Cao's army heavy losses of troops and officers.

When news reaches Cao Cao, he asks who is advising Liu Bei. Cao Ren answers, "Shan Fu." Cheng Yu immediately recognizes that Shan Fu is Xu Shu and gives Cao Cao an enthusiastic introduction.

Cao Cao asked, "How do Xu Shu's abilities compare with yours?" Cheng Yu replied, "Ten times mine."

This arouses Cao Cao's interest. Cheng Yu then proposes a way to win Xu Shu over: abduct his elderly mother. It eventually succeeds in making Xu Shu leave.

VI. Xu Shu: Zhuge Liang = N × Xu Shu

Before leaving Liu Bei, Xu Shu introduces Zhuge Liang to him.

Xuande asked, "How do this man's talents and virtues compare with yours?" Xu Shu replied, "To compare me with him is like setting a worn-out horse beside a qilin, or a jackdaw beside a phoenix. He often compares himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi, but in my view even Guan and Yue might not equal him. He has the talent to order Heaven and Earth and is without equal in the realm!"

Many remember Zhuge Liang as being ten times better than Xu Shu. In fact, the original compares Xu Shu and Zhuge Liang to a worn-out horse and a qilin, or a jackdaw and a phoenix. Apparently the difference is more than tenfold.

VII. Zhou Yu: Zhuge Liang = 10 × Zhou Yu

Luo Guanzhong projected himself into Zhuge Liang when writing Romance of the Three Kingdoms. To give Zhuge Liang more scenes at the Battle of Red Cliffs, he invented many events.

Zhou Yu orders Zhuge Liang to raid Cao Cao's provisions, using the mission as a pretext to have Cao kill him. Zhuge Liang goads Zhou Yu by saying he understands naval warfare but not land warfare. Angered, Zhou Yu decides to raid the provisions himself. Zhuge Liang then uses Lu Su to advise him not to go. Lu Su visits Zhou Yu that night and tells him about it.

Zhou Yu shook his head and stamped his feet: "This man's insight exceeds mine tenfold. If we do not remove him now, he will surely bring disaster on our state!" Lu Su said, "This is a time when we need talent. Please put the state first. After defeating Cao, it will not be too late to deal with him." Zhou Yu accepted this advice.

VIII. Zhuge Liang: Pang Tong = 10 × Zhuge Liang

Judging by appearances, Liu Bei finds Pang Tong too ugly and ill-mannered, so appoints him magistrate of Leiyang County. Pang Tong drinks every day and neglects official business. Angered, Liu Bei sends Zhang Fei to question him, only for Pang Tong to complete a hundred days of government work in one day. Lu Su and Zhuge Liang also speak up for Pang Tong, saying his talents warrant a more important position. Zhuge Liang says:

Shiyuan's abilities are not confined to a district a hundred li across. The learning within his breast surpasses mine tenfold.

After a conversation, Liu Bei finally learns that Pang Tong is Young Phoenix. He apologizes and appoints him military adviser, and all ends happily.

IX. Liu Bei: Zhang He = 10 × Xiahou Yuan

After Huang Zhong kills Xiahou Yuan at Mount Dingjun, Liu Bei's army continues its confrontation with Zhang He's forces. Liu Bei wants to send a general to burn enemy provisions, and Huang Zhong volunteers again. Liu Bei says:

Though Xiahou Yuan was commander-in-chief, he was merely a brave fighter. How could he compare with Zhang He? Killing Zhang He would be ten times better than killing Xiahou Yuan.

Note that this statement has a historical basis. Pei Songzhi's annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms cite the Weilue:

The Weilue says: Although Yuan was commander, Liu Bei feared He and regarded Yuan lightly. After killing Yuan, Bei said, "We should have got their chief. What use is this one?"

This can be understood in two ways. Either Zhang He really posed a greater threat than Xiahou Yuan, or Liu Bei was showing off through a humblebrag: he had killed Cao Wei's commander on the western front, an enormous achievement, yet insisted it was nothing…

In the novel, however, the purpose is simple: to goad Huang Zhong. This may also be the origin of Liu Bei's ruler skill, "Rouse the General," in the game Legends of the Three Kingdoms.

X. Liu Bei: Zhuge Liang = 10 × Cao Pi

Entrusting his heir to Zhuge Liang at Baidi, Liu Bei says:

Your talent is ten times Cao Pi's. You will surely bring peace and stability to the state and ultimately accomplish the great undertaking. If my heir can be assisted, assist him; if he proves unworthy, you may become lord of Chengdu yourself.

Some will ask: if Xu Shu is a worn-out horse to Zhuge Liang's qilin, and Zhou Yu barely amounts to one-tenth of Zhuge Liang, what is Cao Pi? What entitles him to be compared with Zhuge Liang?

This passage really cannot be changed, because it is the only direct quotation from the historical record. In the entire Records of the Three Kingdoms, this is the only actual use of "tenfold arithmetic." The original reads:

In the spring of the third year of Zhangwu, the Former Lord was gravely ill at Yong'an. He summoned Liang from Chengdu and entrusted him with affairs after his death, saying: "Your talent is ten times Cao Pi's. You will surely secure the state and ultimately accomplish the great undertaking. If my heir can be assisted, assist him; if he proves unworthy, you may take it for yourself." Liang wept and said: "I shall exhaust the strength of my limbs, give my utmost loyalty and fidelity, and continue until death!" The Former Lord also issued an edict to the Later Lord: "Work with the chancellor and serve him as you would your father." —Records of the Three Kingdoms, Biography of Zhuge Liang

To sum up, "tenfold arithmetic" is part of Luo Guanzhong's style. Constantly saying "ten times" is certainly imprecise, but it is very effective praise. People raise one another up, and boasting about someone else often means boasting about yourself. On one hand, it displays your modesty, generosity, and eye for talent. On the other, if the other person is so impressive, and I know him so well and can even compare myself with him, I must be pretty good too.

If the comparison concerns an enemy, it can also boost morale.